English is a remarkable language. It is the native tongue of over 600 million people and is the largest speech community in the world except for Mandarin Chinese. The geographic spread of English-speakers stretches from Point Barrow, Alaska to the Falkland Islands near Cape Horn; from the Shetland Islands north of Scotland to Capetown at the southern tip of Africa; from Hong Kong to Australia's island state of Tasmania. It is the predominant language in two of the six inhabited continents(North America and Australia), and there are a large number of speakers in two other continents (Europe and Africa).

As a second language, English is the most important choice. It is spoken by many educated Europeans and Japanese and is the most widely studied foreign tongue in Russia and China. Many of our words have infiltrated the vocabulary of other languages. There are few places in the world where the word "coca cola" is not known. This process of borrowing words from other languages goes on all the time. Indeed, many English words have been borrowed from other cultures and nations. Some experts estimate that over half of our total language is foreign. Unlike the crusty French (and we are not refering to their croissants), we English-speakers do not mind adopting foreign words and phrases! The French on the other hand have actually legally banned the use of some English words. Isn't that strange?

How many English words are there? The total number probably lies somewhere around 500,000. By comparison, most French dictionaries list about 150,000 words and Russian dictionaries around 130,000. Of course, most of us will get around to using only a fraction of the available words. Still, it is nice to know that they're there, and it's quite nice to know the meanings of a lot of them.

English is a very rich language. Think, for a moment, of the verbs associated with the activities of eating. We can eat, devour, consume, munch, nibble, or gulp our food. At the office, we can work, labor, toil, drudge or slave. Rumors suggest that some people may also loaf, laze, goof off. If, after work, we decide to amuse ourselves, we can carouse, drink, wet our whistles, party, sport, play. Our language is varied and precise enough to reflect what we want to say in any situation.

What is language? It is a system of communication. It enables us to convey to others what we are thinking and feeling. We can operate in a group, because of language, and accomplish more than would have been possible if we had had to operate by ourselves.

There are other species which operate in groups without a formal language. Some examples are baboons, wolves, bees, ants, and termites; however, these activities are relatively simple or either very stereotyped. Flexible interaction with others is possible only with some form of language. This ability, to form language, is what separates us from other species and identifies us as human.

There is another important attribute of language. It is the method by which we think. Nearly all of us organize our thoughts by means of words. We don't think out loud, but we hear the words in our minds. In thinking over various ideas, we are able to discover new relationships among the objects and symbols in our minds. This sets the stage for devising new plans and theories.

An important characteristic of a language is that it has grammar. These are rules concerning the generally accepted methods of communicating this particular language. The grammar rules of English are relatively simple. (This may come as a shock to those of you who have suffered through the slings and arrow of high school grammar.) Navajo grammar, on the other hand, is so complex that it is almost impossible to master it unless you have learned the language in childhood. The rules of grammar are arbitrary. They are the product of consensus and custom, not of logic. In most cases, the consensus, or agreed-upon rule, is unconscious and may have gone through change as the culture and customs developed.

The history of the English language is usually dated from around 430 A.D. when the Anglo-Saxons, Germanic tribes, began migrating into Britain, probably around the North Sea. Their language was a very old form of English, one that would not be recognizable to us today. In fact, one of the subjects which is taught to students working on a graduate degree in English is called "Old English." In this course, the students learn to translate these early English language selections into modern English, much in the same way as you might translate a French passage into English.

These Anglo-Saxons came to the British Isles at the invitation of one of the Celtic kings, Vortigern, to protect the Celts from their enemies. Unfortunately, the Anglo-Saxons decided to stay and subjugate the Celts themselves. As the British (Celts) grew weaker, the Angles(English) grew stronger, and they eventually controlled some of the most valuable land in Britain.

The Norman (French) invasion of England in 1066 A.D. was another major influence on our language. In a dispute over the succession of the English throne, Harold, the Earl of Wessex, fought William, the Duke of Normandy. They were both brave and able military leaders, but William was more ruthless. To conquer England, he needed such a quality. Crossing the English Channel was a hazardous journey in 1066. William talked the Pope into declaring that he(William) was the rightful heir to the throne of England. William was then able to gather a considerable force of troops to invade England.

The result of this conquest was that two languages were then in existence in England: Norman French and Old English. Many words from the French language were thus assimilated into the English language, and it became a richer vehicle of expression. Another important influence on our language was Latin. Until the sixteenth century, it was the official language of the clergy. The scriptures and services were recited in Latin. For even more centuries, it was the language of scholars. In 1687 Sir Isaac Newton published his great treatise on physics under a Latin title. Unlike English and French, Latin, however, was not spoken by many living in England.

Arabic was another vocabulary source for our language. During the entire Middle Ages, the Moslem world, stretching from Spain through North Africa to the Near East and even parts of India, was the world's most advanced civilization west of China. While it flourished, it was a rich source of new words. Most of the borrowings were secondhand via French or Latin. Trade contacts with the Moslem world supplied the saffron that still seasons and colors much of the food of Mediterranean Europe. Among other innovations, we have the Arabs to thank for the ideas of pillows and alcoves.

Middle English dates from about the fourteenth century. A good deal of this vocabulary has vanished or changed. The major writer in the Middle English period was Geoffrey Chaucer who produced The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories about a group of people traveling to Canterbury, England. In the four- teenth century, the English had began to get their language, with its French, English, and Latin elements, together. Chaucer was from London and was a poet of the court. He knew astronomy and math well enough to write a paper on the astrolabe (a forerunner of the mariner's sextant). His dates are 1340-1400. The portraits that he paints in his Tales give us an idea of what life was like in fourteenth century England.

By 1625, England's population was around five million, and London was the largest city north of Naples. Scotland was unified with England as one nation. Modern English is usually considered to exist from around the time of Shakespeare's writings, 1592-1616. The irony of this statement, of course, is that our language has changed so much from Shakespeare's time that some of the vocabulary is difficult for us to understand. Here are some samples of Old English, Middle English, and Shakespeare's English: